* 


I 


\ 


THE  PLACE  OF  ACCESSORY  MEANING 
IN  ASSOCIATION 


By 

HARRIETT  MAYBELLE  ANDERSON 

A.B.  University  of  Illinois,  1920 


THESIS 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS 
FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  MASTER  OF  ARTS  IN  PSYCHOLOGY 
IN  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS,  1922 


URBANA,  ILLINOIS 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/placeofaccessoryOOande 


THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 


Mayi_25., -192-2- 


i HEREBY  RECOMMEND  THAT  THE  THESIS  PREPARED  UNDER  MY 

SUPERVISION  BY Harr&e  It  Yayb  e 1 1 e An  Is  r s on 

ENTITLED  The  Place  of  Accessory  Meaning  in  Association 


BE  ACCEPTED  AS  FULFILLING  THIS  PART  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 


Recommendation  concurred  in* 


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' 


' 


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TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Page 

I Historical  Summary 1 

II  The  Experiments S 

III  Conclusions 38 

Bibliography 


42 


1 


THE  PLACE  OF  ACCESSORY  MEANING  IN  ASSOCIATION 


HISTORICAL  SUMMARY 


Since  the  first  extension  of  experimental  methods  to 
the  study  of  memory  and  thought,  a number  of  serious  attempts  have 
been  made  to  reformulate  the  traditional  " laws"  of  association,  to 
give  an  analysis  of  what  has  been  called  the  "associative  conscious- 
ness", and  to  measure  the  capacity  of  association  and  memory.  We 
may  take  us  typical  examples  the  work  of  Ebbinghaus,  Meurnann,  the 
G&ttingen  School,  Arnold,  Calkins,  and  Titchener.  Ebbinghaus  was 
the  pioneer.  His  method  of  nonsense  series  has  been  very  important 
in  the  development  of  quantitative  research  in  this  field.  For 
the  past  generation  this  method  has  been  under  development  by  G.  E. 
Mttller  and  his  pupils. 

By  the  term  association  Ebbinghaus  means  nothing  more  nor 
less  than  reproduction,  which  he  conceives  as  a process  or  as 
activity. 

"While  attention  means  limitation,  memory 

means  expansion We  refer  to  this 

ability  of  expansion  by  the  term  memory,  to 
the  actual  process  of  expansion  by  reproduction 
or  association. "x 

Meurnann,  on  the  other  hand,  distinguishes  between  associ- 
ation and  reproduction,  reserving  the  former  term  for  the  linking 


1.  Ebbinghaus,  H. , Psychology;  an  elementary  text-book. 
(Tr.  by  M.  Meyer)  1908,  pp.  93-93. 


2 


or  consoiidatin  of  impressions. 

"Association  is  the  initial  formation 
of  a connection  between  ideas  which  are 
present  in  consciousness  simultaneously  or 
in  immediate  succession,  or  which  occur  at 
least  as  links  in  a chain  of  ideas  which 
constitutes  some  sort  of  a unitary  whole 
for  us.  Reproduction,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  the  appearance  of  ideas  in  consciousness, - 
a phenomenon  ’which  is  rendered  possible  in 
most  cases  by  a previously  established  asso-  _ 
ciation  between  these  ideas  and  other  ideas."1 2 3 

Arnold  says  that  there  are  two  aspects  of  association. 

In  the  one  it  is  to  be  considered  as  something;  already  existing, 
depending  upon  nervous  processes;  in  the  other,  it  is  simply  the 
process  of  recall.  In  the  former,  the  emphasis  is  placed  upon 
the  first  member,  while  in  the  latter,  it  is  placed  upon  the 
second  member  in  its  relation  to  the  former.  In  the  first  place, 
then,  association  is  looked  upon  as  a cause,  much  as  Meumann  re- 
ports it;  while  in  the  second  it  becomes  effect. 

"Considered  as  a cause,  therefore,  asso- 
ciation is  the  functional  development  of  a 
psychological  disposition;  as  an  effect,  it 
is  the  realization  in  serial  order  of  the  con- 
tinuity implicit  in  the  present  moment."' 

In  her  study.  Association,  Calkins  starts  out  with 

the  following  provisional  definition: 

"Association  may  be  defined  as  the 
observable  connection  between  successive 
objects  or  partial  objects  of  consciousness, 
of  which  the  second  is  not  an  object  of  per- 
ception. ,,iJ 


1.  Meumann,  E.,  The  Psychology  of  Learning,  1913,  p.3. 

2.  Arnold,  F. , The  Psychology  of  Association.  1906, p. 72. 

3.  Calkins,  M.  W. , Association.  (Psychol.  Rev.  Mono?. 
Suppl. . No.  2,  Feb.  1S96.  p.  l) 


. 

5 


At  the  end  of  her  study  she  gives  as  a complete  definition: 


"Association  is  the  connection  between 
objects  or  elements  of  consciousness  (of 
which  the  second  is  not  perceptual),  assumed 
to  be  respectively  identical  with  preceding 
objects,  or  elements  of  consciousness  which 
have  stood  to  each  other  in  a relation  of 
similarity  or  succession. " 1 

Apparently  she  does  not  confine  association  to  ideas.  The  first 
element  in  the  complex  may  be  perceptual.  Furthermore,  she  brings 
in  a ’self’  to  explain  'identical  objects'. 


"Truth  to  tell  there  is  no  recourse  here 
save  in  the  recognition  of  that  'inexpugnable 
assumption'  of  the  permanent  self  beneath  the 
changing  phenomena.  One  can  never  have  the 
same  states  of  consciousness,  in  successive 
hours  or  moments,  but  one  may  be  conscious  in 
the  same  way  at  different  times,  and  in  that 
sense  only  the  successive  objects  of  pnes  con- 
sciousness may  be  called  'the  same'."^ 

In  hi3  Textbook  of  Psychology  (1910),  Titchener  refers  to 
association  as  a "group  of  ideas",  or  as  "such  and  so  many  ideas 
found  uniforraally  together  in  such-and-such  ways"  (p.  3??) ; but  in 
his  later  Beginner's  Psychology  (1916)  he  confirms  the  theory  of 
James  that  meanings,  not  mental  processes,  are  associated  (p.  149). 

The  definition  of  Ebbinghaus  is  obviously  uncritical. 
Ebbinghaus  is  not  especially  interested  in  defining  or  analysing 
association,  but  rather,  in  discovering  aids  and  hindrances  to  mem- 
ory. It  is  natural  therefore  that  he  should  identify  association 


with  reproduction.  Meumann  has  distinguished  between  association 
and  reproduction;  but  his  definition  is  practical  rather  than 
scientific.  He  does  not  enter  into  the  analysis  of  the  associative 


Ibid. , p.  10. 
Ibid. . p.  1. 


1. 

2. 


4 


mind.  We  are,  no  doubt,  justified,  however,  in  assuming  that  his 
'ideas'  are  the  'ideas'  of  the  associationists;  that  is,  that  they 
are  meanings  rather  thtn  mental  processes.  Meumann,  like  Ebbing- 
haus,  has  made  an  attempt  to  discover  the  conditions  which  aid  or 
hinder  recall. 

Ebbinghaus'  p reate st  contribution  to  the  field  of  associa- 
tion v/as  the  introduction  of  a new  kind  of  material  and  a new  method 
of  research.  By  using  meaningless  material  - nonsense  syllables  - 
it  seemed  to  him  possible  to  study  the  strength  and  duration  of  new 
associative  bonds.  Since  his  material  could  be  readily  varied  on 
the  quantitative  side,  it  was  practically  unlimited  in  amount. 

From  his  own  experiments  he  sought  to  derive  laws  expressing  the 
dependence  of  reproduction  upon  such  conditions  as  the  length  of 
the  series,  the  number  and  distribution  of  repetitions,  and  the 
elapsed  interval  of  time. 

Meumann,  Arnold,  Calkins,  and  Titchener  all  attack  the  old 
historical  laws  of  association,  which  were  first  formulated  by 
Aristotle,  - the  laws  of  similarity,  contrast,  contiguity  in  space 
and  time.  Meumann  would  substitute  for  them  the  special  conditions 
under  which  association  and  reproduction  take  place.  He  divides 
these  conditions  into  three  groups,  impression,  reproduction,  and 
forgetting.  Under  the  conditions  of  impression  he  would  include 
time  (duration  of  process,  number  of  appearances,  rhythm,  etc.), 
attention,  and  emotion;  under  conditions  of  reproduction,  the  num- 
ber of  associated  processes  at  recall,  and  the  present  state  of 
consciousness . 

Arnold  points  out  that  the  old  traditional  laws  of 


5 


association  are  not  'laws',  but  are  simply  logical  forms  of  associa- 
tion. After  casting  them  aside,  he  attempts  to  formulate  a real 
law  which  must,  as  he  thinks,  take  meaning  into  account.  The  law  - 
a law  of  "redintegration"  - he  states  as  follows: 

"Any  element  tends  to  reinstate  the  entire 
moment  of  which  it  previously  constituted  a part, 
which  moment  tends  (l)  to  diffuse  itself  along 
some  one  of  the  paths  which  have  been  already 
formed;  (2)  to  leave  a trace  of  itself  as  a 
whole  for  future  revival  and  development."*1 2- 

Eecause  of  the  great  complexity  of  any  moment,  it  is  impossible  to 

predict  at  any  time  what  the  second  member  will  be.  The  various 

factors  which  enter  in  may  be  named  under  the  'secondary1  laws  of 

association,  ’.which  he  defined  (after  James  and  Calkins)  as  five; 

repetition,  vividness,  recency,  primacy,  and  emotional  congruity. 

Arnold  reviews  the  existing  classifications.  Although  they  are 

based  in  part,  upon  experiment,  they  are,  as  he  finds,  by  no  means 

free  from  logic. 

liss  Calkins,  likewise,  rejects  the  old  laws  of  similar- 
ity and  contrast.  The  essential  point  for  her  is  the  distinction 
between  "concrete  association  of  things  and  the  association  of 
elements  as  qualities."-  Her  own  experimental  study  bears  upon 
the  "secondary"  laws  of  frequency,  vividness,  recency,  and  primacy. 

Titchener  emphasizes  the  integrative  side  of  association, 
contending  that  it  is  the  "situation"  which  conjoins  the  ■''actors. 

The  situation  serves,  apparently,  by  setting  up  a nervous  disposi- 
tion which  accounts  for  subsequent  revivals. 


1.  Arnold,  F.  , op.,  cut.,  p.  62. 

2.  Calkins,  M.  W. , op.  cit . , p.  17. 


/ 

6 


"Let  us,"  he  says,  "cull  the  brain  pro- 
cesses that  are  correlated  with  mental  pro- 
cesses ' psychoneural ' processes.  Then  we 
may  say:  IPhen  a number  of  psychoneural  pro- 
cesses, all  of  which  are  reinforced  and  all 
of  which  stand  alike  under  the  directive 
influence  of  a nervous  disposition,  occur 
together  under  certain  favorable  conditions, 
then  associative  tendencies  are  established 
among  them,  such  that  the  recurrence  of  any 
one  tends  to  involve,  according  to  circum- 
stances, the  recurrence  of  the  others."1 * 3 

Turning  then  to  mind,  he  gives  the  following  law: 

"If  a number  of  vivid  perceptions  or 
ideas,  whose  situational  context  is  the  same, 
occur  together  under  favorable  conditions, 
then  the  later  appearance  in  the  same  situa- 
tional context  o*  any  one  will  tend  to  be 
accompanied,  according  to  circumstances,  byr. 
the  reappearance  (as  ideas)  of  the  others. 

Furthermore,  as  this  does  not  take  into  account  the  fact  that  we 

may  pass  from  one  situational  context  to  another,  he  adis: 

"If  certain  of  these  reapnearing  ideas 
belong  also  to  a different  situational  con- 
text, they  will  tend  to  be  accompanied, 
again  according  to  circumstances,  by  ideas 
which  formerly  occured  together  (as  percep- 
tions or  ideas)  within  that  context."0 

Titchener  has  gone  further  in  the  direction  of  analysis 
than  others.  His  description,  also,  of  the  underlying  neural 
conditions  does  explain,  though  it  is  largely  speculative. 

There  seems  to  be  little  value  in  any  forms  of  classifi- 
cation given.  The  nearest  Titchener  comes  to  classification  is  a 
distinction  of  the  different  forms  of  organization,  or  modes  of 
connection,  of  mental  processes.  The  types  of  organization  are 


1.  Titohener,  E.  P.,  A Pecrinner's  r'sycholomy,  1916, 

p.  164. 

3.  Ibid.,  p.  166. 

3.  Ibid. . p.  168. 


I 


7 


fusion  and  conjunction,  the  same  as  in  perception.  However,  he 
finds  no  satisfactory  description  of  the  connection  of  the  complexes 
as  perception  and  idea. 

Meumann's  enumeration  of  the  conditions  upon  which  asso- 
ciation depends  is  fruitful.  It  organizes  the  material  and 
problems  in  an  adequate  manner.  Using  this  as  a suggestion,  we 
may  sum  up  these  conditions  in  such  an  outline  as  the  following: 

I.  Conditions  operative  at  the  rime  of  presentation 

1.  Amount  of  material 

2.  Imaginal  type  of  the  observer 

3.  Repetitions 

Number 

Distribution 

4.  Manner  of  learning 

By  whole 
By  part 

5.  Type  of  material 

Meaningful 

Nonsense 

6.  Rhythm 

7.  Intent  to  learn 

8.  Attention 

II.  Conditions  operative  during  the  interval  between 
presentation  and  recall 

1.  Length  of  time 

2.  Retroactive  influences 

3.  Character  of  filling 

III.  Conditions  operative  during  the  period  of  recall 

1.  Attention 

2 . Fat i gue 

3.  Method  used 

A.  Methods  of  reproduction 

(1)  Method  of  retained  members 

(The  observer  is  asked  to  repro- 
duce as  much  as  possible  without 
aid) 

(2)  Method  of  learning  by  heart 

(Learning  is  measured  by  the  number 
of  repetitions  necessary  for  com- 
plete retention) 

(3)  The  saving  method  (Ersparnismethode) 

(The  observer  is  instructed  to  re- 
learn the  series) 


8 


(4)  The  method  of  sample  associates 
(Tref i erme thode ) 

(Part  of  the  material  is  given  and 
conjoining  parts  are  to  be  sup- 
plied) 

(5)  The  method  of  aids 

(Also  a completion  method,  but  in 
this  case  the  observer  is  aided 
when  reproduction  fails) 

E.  Methods  of  recognition 

(Usually  all  of  the  material  is  given 
together  with  some  additional  material, 
the  problem  being  to  recognize  the  old; 

Our  own  problem,  a study  in  certain  accessory  factors  in 
association,  falls  in  the  first  group,  for  it  concerns  conditions 
operative  during  the  period  of  presentation.  It  arises  out  of  the 
common  appearance  of  adventitious  associates  in  recall.  In  re- 
calling the  declension  of  a certain  French  lord,  we  frequently  re- 
member its  exact  place  on  the  page  in  our  first  French  grammar. 

The  recall  of  a motor  trip  may  bring  with  it  the  memory  that  a 
companion  wore  a peach  colored  scarf  which  was  blown  by  the  breeze. 
It  is  commonly  assumed,  but  without  experimental  verification,  that 

such  associates  not  only  anpear  in  revival  but  that  they  are  actual 

/ 

aids  to  recall.  To  put  the  matter  to  the  proof,  we  have  selected 
certain  outside  factors;  i_.  e_. , factors  which  lie  outside  of  the 
central  meaning  of  the  situation,  and  we  have  attempted  to  discover 
whether  or  not  they  do  actually  serve  as  integrating  factors.  In 
order  to  discover  just  the  place  they  occupy  in  mind,  we  have  taken 
pains  to  note  where  they  stand  as  regards  clearness  and  as  regards 
organization,  during  the  periods  of  impression  and  of  recall. 

Fefore  describing  our  own  experiments,  we  should  mention 
in  review  a number  of  related  problems;  'mediate'  association,  the 
effect  of  'subliminal*  factors  on  perception,  the  possibility  of 


8 

spontaneous  survival  through  an  alleged  ' perseverative 1 tendency, 
and  the  problem  of  incidental  memory.*  No  one  of  these  problems 
is  exactly  the  same  as  our  own.  Scripture,  in  his  study  of 
•mediate'  association,  and  the  investigators  of  the  subliminal  pro- 
cesses were  dealing  with  unconscious  or  subconscious  processes  which 
were  supposed  to  be  connected  in  some  unknown  way  with  the  observa- 
ble processes  of  mind.  The  assumption  of  a perseverative  tendency 

is  based  upon  an  assumed  rhythmical  return  of  processes  to  mind. 
There  seems  to  be  no  final  evidence  for  the  existence  of  such  a ten- 
dency; and  if  it  existed  it  would  not  account  for  our  observations. 
In  the  problem  of  incidental  memory  we  find  something  more  closely 
related  to  our  own,  the  chief  difference  being  that  in  the  former 
an  effort  is  made  to  determine  to  what  extent  these  outside  factors 
may  be  recalled,  while  we  are  ourselves  endeavoring  to  determine  to 
what  extent,  if  at  all,  obscure  processes  under  impression  are  con- 
cerned in  the  associative  complex. 

THE  EXPERIMENTS 

In  work  done  in  our  own  laboratory  antecedent  to  the 
present  study,  the  learning  of  nonsense  syllables  was  the  main  task 
and  color  was  used  as  the  adventitious  factor.  In  order  to  obtain 
stronger  associative  bonds  than  this  material  afforded,  German 
nouns  were  later  employed  with  the  articles  'ier',  'lie',  and  'das'. 
As  this  material  was  found  to  lack  uniformity,  nonsense  words  were 


1.  See  Potter,  M.  L. , The  Role  of  Adventitious  Associ- 
ates in  Recall,  1921. 


10 

formed  by  combining  two  nonsense  syllables  and  dropping  one  of  the 
middle  consonates  (e_.g_. , sudow,  fibux),  and,  in  place  of  the  three 
articles,  the  symbols  +,  =,  and  # were  used.  In  making  up  the 
exposure  series,  two  independent  factors  bearing  upon  our  problem 
had  to  be  considered,  namely,  color  and  segregation.  The  factor 
of  color  was  brought  in  by  presenting  the  'words  and  symbols  on 
colored  cards.  In  the  segregated  series  words  with  like  symbols 
were  grouped  together  upon  the  colors,  while,  in  the  white  series, 
they  were  presented  in  a mixed  arrangement. 

In  order  to  exploit  an  entirely  different  kind  of  setting 
for  the  associative  complex,  three  bodily  postures,  standing, 
sitting,  and  kneeling,  were  assumed  by  the  observers,  - thus  throw- 
ing in,  as  advantitious  factors,  organic  and  kinae3thetic  processes. 

From  the  results  of  both  these  procedures,  nonsense  words 
with  colored  backgrounds  and  with  postures,  the  conclusion  was 
reached  that 

"segregation  is  a strong  incentive  to  recall 

and  advantitious  associates  

aid  recall  only  when  they  are  given  in  con-  J 

junction  with  segregated  groups."1 

’Border*  Associates.  It  is  at  this  point  that  we  take 
up  the  problem  for  further  experimental  research.  Our  first  step 
was  toward  further  refinements  of  method.  In  the  first  place, 
white  cards  with  colored  borders  were  used  in  place  of  colored  cards, 
thus  removing  differences  in  legibility,  reducing  after-ima?;es,  and 


1.  Ibid.,  p.  33. 


11 


removing  the  color  from  the  field  of  direct  vision.  Secondly, 
each  word  with  its  symbol  was  printed  on  a separate  card  both  for 
the  bordered  and  the  borderless  series,  thus  making  these  condi- 
tions the  same.  Thirdly,  the  interval  was  doubled  in  length  at 
the  end  of  each  five  words  to  break  up  the  mixed  as  well  as  the 
segregated  series  into  three  groups  of  five.  Fourthly,  the  timing 
device  was  improved  with  a soundless  bob  swung  by  a silk  thread  at 
a one-second  length.  Finally,  the  former  exposure  screen  was 
replaced  by  a reading  desk  adjusted  to  the  proper  reading  distance. 
The  desk  was  covered  with  a large  gray  cardboard  sheet  having  a 
window  4x6  inches.  The  exposure  was  effected  by  a gray  cardboard 
shutter  which  opened  and  closed  the  window  by  means  of  rubber  bands 
and  a cord  running  over  a system  of  pulleys. 

As  before,  a complete  set  consisted  of  four  series  of 
fifteen  words  each;  five  of  the  words  in  each  series  being  pre- 
sented with  =,  five  with  +,  and  five  with  #.  The  four  series  were 
as  follows:  (A)  A white  mixed  series  (all  plain  white  cards  with 

the  three  symbols  arranged  in  chance  order) ; (B)  a colored  mixed 

series  (the  cards  identical  with  those  used  in  A except  that  they 
had  borders  of  colored  lines  on  the  white  sheets,  five  of  them 
having  red,  five  green,  and  five  violet  borders,  the  colors  being 
arranged  in  chance  order  in  reference  both  to  position  and  to 
symbols);  (C)  a colored  segregated  series  (cards  identical  with 
those  used  in  B except  that  the  same  symbol  appeared  on  cards 
having  the  3ame  colored  borders  in  each  case,  thus  the  five  #'s  on 
cards  with  red  borders,  the  five  =’s  on  cards  with  green  borders, 
and  the  five  + *s  on  cards  with  violet  borders,  the  symbols  and 


• - 


' 


■ 


12 


colors  in  this  case  being  arranged  in  segregated  order);  and  (D) 
a white  segregated  series  (the  cards  identical  with  those  in  A but 
arranged  in  segregated  order) . 


White 

, Unsegregated  Colored  Segregated  \. 

A t » B 4 > C ^ D 

Figures  I,  II,  III,  and  IV  illustrate  Series  A,  E,  C,  and  D 


respectively. 

For  the  first,  part  of  the  experiment,  six  complete  series 
of  the  above  description  were  made  up,  making  360  nonsense  words  in 

all. 

For  reproduction,  the  words  of  each  series  were  typed  in 
chance  order  on  a single  sheet  of  paper. 

A series  of  cards  was  placed  at  the  window  with  the 
shutter  closed.  The  observer  sat  before  the  apparatus  in  a com- 
fortable position.  The  experimenter  was  out  of  view  behind  the 
apparatus.  Each  card  was  exposed  for  two  seconds,  followed  by  an 
interval  of  two  seconds,  except  that  the  interval  after  the  fifth 
and  tenth  cards  was  four  seconds.  The  interval  between  repeti- 
tions was  kept  as  uniform  as  possible,  about  ten  seconds.  An 
interval  of  thrity  seconds,  during  which  the  observer  was  asked  to 
do  indicated  sums,  followed  the  sixth  repetition. 

As  has  already  been  mentioned,  each  series  was  divided 
into  three  grourjs  of  fives.  The  groups  of  five  were  numbered 
1,  2,  and  3.  In  the  six  repetitions  the  three  fives  were  pre- 
sented in  every  possible  order;  viz.  , 


13 


+ yazon 


= mupet 

+ xoyej 

r f offuj 

= suhid 

= tovaq 

# dapoy 

+ hi gem 

# nirr.ic 

•:  sejap 

+ refil 

Fi~ure  I. 


Series  A 


14 


= rax oh 


= be nek 


# payov 


= giwup 


4-  le  gaw 


4-  fijas 


I yeluf 


Figure  II.  Series  E. 


r f umox 


1 


+ qapuh 


= miqop 


f" 


i'  hazeq 


j ahul 


= puzek 


# siyos 


+ vuhag 

= yeduv 


1 

4i  veyij 

- 

# boh  oh 


4-  bigad 

= vivel 

+ pcsen 

= cahas 

Fi  ure  III. 


Series  C. 


15 


= buzib 

+ turef 

# xehow 

= lafot 

+ codiw 

* 

# zeran 

= yufop 

■ 

4-  hizim  • 

# zusox 

= j ocad 

+ bavec 

Z kiqet 

= majig 

+ cowiq 

# j ituv 

Figure  IV.  Series  D. 


1? 


Presentation 

I - order 

i, 

2,3 

tt 

tl 

II  - " 

2, 

3,1 

n 

tt 

III  - " 

3, 

1,3 

n 

n 

IV  - " 

1, 

3,2 

tt 

tt 

V - " 

2, 

1,3 

It 

H 

VI  - " 

3, 

2,1 

A short  practice  series  was  given  each  observer  before 
the  regular  experiment  was  begun.  At  the  beginning  the  observer 
worked,  under  the  following  instructions: 

"Two  seconds  after  a 'ready'  signal  you 
will  be  presented  with  a series  of  nonsense 
words,  each  of  which  is  written  after  a sym- 
bol. The  series  will  be  divided  into  three 
parts  by  means  of  short  intervals.  There 
will  be  six  repetitions  of  each  complete 
series.  During  the  interval  which  follows 
the  sixth  repetition  you  will  do  indicated 
sums  in  addition  and  subtraction.  At  the 
end  of  this  interval  a new  sheet,  the  repro- 
duction sheet,  will  be  laid  before  you  con- 
taining the  nonsense  words  of  the  foregoing 
series.  To  these  words  you  will  affix  as 
many  of  the  correct  symbols  as  you  can. 

After  each  reproduction  you  will  be 
called  upon  for  introspections  and  comments." 

After  the  experiments  had  begun,  it  was  found  that  two  of 

the  observers,  Y and  K,  were  using  various  devices  for  learning. 

This  is  shown  by  the  following  observational  comments: 

"In  some  cases  I read  a meaning  into  the 
svllable  and  connect  the  symbol  with  a mean- 
ing." Obs.  K:  C(2) 

"The  following  shows  meanings  used  to 
connect  symbols  and  words:  matoy  = my  toy, 
dicej -•-+  dice  etc."  Obs.  K:  A (2) 

"In  this  case,  I was  able  to  organize 
the  words  of  + and  = into  a group.  This 
aided  much  in  recall."  Obs.*  K:  D(4)  . 

"A  great  many  associations  learned  during 
the  series  acted  as  cues.  For  example,  in 

gelug,  g = g "Vamut"  suggests  "vomit" 

and  "vomit"  has  a 'sharp'  pain,  therefore  'f'." 

Obs.  Y 


. 


■ 


le 


"There  is  an  intellectual  play  which 
attempts  to  put  meaning  upon  the  combina-- 
tions  and  to  find  relations  between  the 
form  and  symbol.  This  play  continues  un- 
til the  next  exposure."  Obs.  Y 

The  results  already  obtained  from  Obs.  Y and  K were  then  thrown  out, 
as  they  were  obviously  obtained  under  widely  warying  and  inconstant 
conditions. 

It  was  obviously  necessary  to  rule  out  — if  possible  — 
•these  artificial  aids.  For  this  purpose  the  instructions  were 
modified  as  follows: 

"Two  seconds  after  a ’ready’  signal 
you  will  be  presented  with  a series  of  non- 
sense words,  each  of  which  is  written  after 
a symbol.  Each  complete  series  will  be 
divided  into  three  parts  by  means  of  short 
intervals.  There  will  be  six  repetitions 
of  each  complete  series. 

After  each  repetition,  AT  THE  SIGNAL 
’HEST'  YOU  WILL  DROP  THE  SERIES  AND  PREPARE 
FOR  THE  NEXT  REPETITION.  DO  NOT  REVIEW 
THE  PREVIOUS  SERIES. 

AVOID  LOGICAL  ASSOCIATIONS  IN  LEARNING. 

During  the  interval  which  follows  the 
sixth  repetition  you  will  do  indicated  sums 
in  addition  and  subtraction.  At  the  end 
of  this  interval,  a new  sheet,  the  reproduc- 
tion sheet,  will  be  placed  before  you  con- 
taining the  nonsense  words  of  the  foregoing 
series.  To  these  words  you  will  affix  as 
many  of  the  correct  symbols  as  you  can,  tak- 
ing them  in  the  order  given  on  the  sheet. 

You  will  indicate  the  degree  of  assur- 
ance by  placing  the  number  1,  2,  or  3 before 
each  sumbol.  (l  = very  certain,  2 = fairly 
certain,  a.nd  3 = no  certainty) 

After  each  reproduction  you  will  be 
called  upon  for  introsx^ect ive  comments." 

Furthermore,  the  observers  were  asked  to  mark  all  pairs  in  -which 

’logical’  associations  appeared. 


IS 


The  numerical  results  obtained  are  tabulated  in  Tables 
I,  II,  and  III.  In  every  case  the  totals  for  A are  highest,  the 
difference  being  greatest  for  Obs.  Y.  When  the  results  are 
thrown  into  graphical  form,  a dip  appears  at  B for  all  three  Obs. 
(See  graphs  P.22)  In  the  cases  of  Obs.  Y and  0,  there  is  a rise 
again  at  D.  The  differences  for  Obs.  K were  so  slight  throughout 
as  to  have  little  significance. 

We  find  wide  variations  in  the  result  of  the  individual 
observers,  which  are  not  accounted  for  in  the  introspections. 

While  the  general  tendency  is  clear  in  the  totals,  it-  is  so  slight 
as  to  be  masked  in  the  single  sets.  For  Obs.  0 the  total  per  cent, 
correct  in  A is  85.7,  (M.V.  11.6);  in  B,  81.2  (M.V.  9);  in  C,  83.7 
(M.V.  8.6);  and  in  D,  83.5  (M.V.  10.6). 

In  no  case  do  we  find  an  adequate  explanation  in  this 
observer's  commentary  for  these  serial  differences.  We  do  find 
explanations,  however,  for  some  of  the  differences  in  accomplish- 
ment in  the  results  of  the  other  observers.  Obs.  K notes  in  A and 
D(s)  distraction  coming  in  through  an  effort  to  inhibit  logical 
meanings.  In  (3)  where  B stands  relatively  high,  he  notes  that 
there  was  particular  attention  to  colors  during  the  fifth  repeti- 
tion. Obs.  Y mentions  an  inhibited  tendency  to  name  the  colors  in 
C(2);  in  B of  the  same  set,  a difficulty  to  maintain  uniform  atten- 
tion because  of  extraneous  associations;  and  in  A,  a lack  of  inter- 
est. As  shown  by  the  tables  the  percentage  correct  in  these  cases 
was  decidedly  low.  For  C(2),  where  the  number  (percent.)  correct 
was  only  46.6,  Y reports  a drop  in  intent  to  learn. 

We  are  led  to  believe  that  these  wide  variations  in  the 


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23 

results  represent  some  variable  factor  in  the  self -instruction  or 
on  the  side  of  extraneous  processes  which  have  not  appeared  in  the 
introspections  or  comments. 

The  numerical  results  indicate  that  the  colored  borders 
did  not  actually  serve  as  mediating  factors;  but  - at  least  in  the 
case  of  Obs.  G and  Y - as  positive  distractions.  Furthermore, 
there  is  insufficient  evidence  that  segregation  served  as  an  aid  to 
re  call . 

The  next  problem  seemed  to  be  to  get  a more  detailed 
analysis  of  mind  at  the  time  of  presentation,  the  object  being  to 
discover  by  what  processes  these  extraneous  factors  were  carried 
and  -where  they  stood  in  the  total  organization  of  mind.  To  this 
end  a number  of  series  were  completed  under  the  following  instruc- 
tions : 

"Two  seconds  after  a 'ready'  signal, 
you  will  be  presented  with  a series  of  non- 
sense words,  each  of  which  is  written  after 
a symbol.  Each  complete  series  will  be 
divided  into  three  parts  by  means  of  short 
intervals. 

After  the  first  repetition,  AT  THE 
SIGNAL  'BEST'  ’"ILL  DPO?  THE  SEPIES  AND 
PREPARE  FOR  THE  NEXT  REPITITION.  DO  NOT 
REVIEW  THE  PREVIOUS  SERIES. 

AVOID  LOGICAL  ASSOCIATIONS  IN  LEARNING. 

Following  the  second  repetition  you 
will  either  be  ashed  to  reproduce  the  symbols 
or  to  give  an  introspective  account  of  the 
presentation  period." 

The  observers  reported  visual,  auditory,  and  kinaesthetic 
processes;  but  we  got  little  information  as  to  just  what  these  pro- 
cesses stood  for  and  as  to  their  place  in  mind.  Subsequently,  an 


' 


24 


analysis-sheet  was  used,  upon  which  the  observer  was  asked  to  desig- 
nate, not  only  the  mental  processes  but  also  their  clearness  value. 
Clearness  was  designated  by  numbers  ranging  from  1 to  5,  1 being 
very  clear,  2 fairly  clear,  3 medium,  4 fairly  obscure,  and  5 very 
obscure , 

The  introspective  results  obtained  in  this  manner  are 
shown  in  the  following  table: 


Processes 

Visual  sensations 
Words 
Colors 

Auditory  sensations 
Exposure 

Kinaesthetic  sensations 
Verbal 

Visual  imagery 


Auditory  imagery 
Kinaesthetic  imagery 


Obs.  G 


Clearness  values 

Obs.  Y Obs.  K 


1 be  com.  2 or  3 
1 and  2 


1 

2 


i 

1 to  3 


4 and  5 4 and  5 4 and  5 

1 and  2 2 and  3 3 to  5 

occasionally 
4 and  5 

(also  after  Im, ) (after images) (afterimages) 
3 and  5 " 3 

3 occasionally 

3 or  4 


These  comments  throw  considerable  light  upon  the  organization  of 
mind  during  the  period  of  presentation  and  give  strong  evidence  that 
the  colored  borders  were  distracting  factors. 1 

Since  the  introspections  do  not  account  for  the  fact  that 
the  totals  for  A (white  unsegregated  series)  were  higher  than  those 
for  D (white  segregated  series),  it  was  suspected  that  the  reason 
must  lie  in  a different  self-instruction  for  the  segregated  and  the 
unsegregated  series.  The  observers  were  asked  to  report  upon  any 


1.  The  clearness  values  of  Y were  not  wholly  reliable, 
as  this  Obs.  did  not  sharply  distinguish  between  process  clearness 
and  cognitive  clearness. 


25 


difference  of  disposition  or  set  which  appeared  in  these  two  series. 
They  were  not,  however,  informed  of  the  quantitative  results.  In 
the  case  of  Obs.  G,  we  found  that  in  the  D series,  during  the  pre- 
sentation period,  there  was  a tendency  for  the  common  symbol  to  be 
carried  over  by  obscure  processes  from  word  to  word  throughout  the 
part-series.  Ye  should  expect  this  carrying  over  to  improve  repro- 
duction. It  was  also  found  that  in  the  unsegregated  series  each 
pair  was  silently  repeated  two  or  three  times  during  each  exposure; 
while  in  the  unsegregated  series  each  pair  was  repeated  only  once. 
Obs.  K reported  the  A series  to  be  more  difficult,  so  effecting  the 
attentive  set.  Obs.  Y also  reported  a like  difference  in  attentive 
se  t . 


1 Angle  * associates.  To  get  rid  of  the  distracting  ele- 
ment of  color  and  to  secure  a stronger  bond,  something  more  nearly 
parallel  to  position  on  the  printed  page,  a new  kind  of  material  was 
used.  The  words  and  symbols  of  the  B and  C series,  in  place  of 
being  centered  on  the  white  part  of  the  cards  were  placed  in  the 
different  corners  (five  of  each  series  in  the  upper  right-hand  cor- 
ner, five  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner,  and  five  in  the  lower  left- 
hand  corner).  Lines  were  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  edges,  enclos- 
ing the  word  and  symbol  in  the  center  of  the  space  and  emphasizing 
the  quadrant  where  the  pair  appeared.  The  white  sheets  were  then 
pasted  on  the  gray  cards  in  such  a position  that  the  fixation  point 
was  kept  constant. 

Samples 


26 


A new  lot  of  words  was  made  up  by  reversing  the  old  ones 
and  then  marking  out  all  which  duplicated  words  already  used. 

Four  complete  set 3 (240  words  in  all)  were  made  up.  The  A and  D 
series  .<vere  of  the  same  sort  as  before  and  the  B and  C series  cor- 
responded to  the  B and  C series  with  the  colored  borders  (in  B the 
symbols  were  arranged  in  mixed  order  both  as  to  quadrants  and 
temporal  sequence;  in  C they  were  arranged  in  segregated  order). 

Furthermore,  it  was  felt  that  the  method  used  in  repro- 
duction, a mixed  sequence,  might  give  some  advantage  to  the  mixed 
order  of  presentation.  To  eliminate  this  factor,  the  Treff er  ! 

method  was  used  for  alternating  sets.  Instead  of  being  presented 
with  a reproduction-sheet  containing  all  of  the  words,  the  Obs. 
was  given  a small  sheet  containing  a single  word.  When  he  had 
prefixed  the  symbol,  that  sheet  was  removed  and  another  handed  to 
him.  In  this  way  four  samples  were  obtained  for  each  series. 

Great  care  was  used  in  picking  out  these  samples  to  make  sure  that 
no  preference  was  given  to  words  standing  in  certain  favorable  or 
unfavorable  positions. 

The  results  obtained  with  this  new  material  are  shown  in 
tables  IV,  V,  VI,  VII,  VIII,  and  IX.  Except  in  the  case  of  Obs. 

K,  the  totals  for  B and  C are  no  higher  than  for  A and  D.  In 
fact,  position  on  the  sheet  seems  to  he  a distraction  for  both  Obs. 

G and  Y.  On  the  other  hand,  K's  numerical  results  for  B and  C are 
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position  being  used  as  an  itentional  aid.  It  was  not  then  a really 
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32 

"In  this  case  there  was  a definite  ten- 
dency to  place  each  word  in  one  of  the  three 
corners.  The  symbol  was  associated  with  the 
corner  as  much  as  the  word  itself.  The  cor- 
ner arrangement  became  an  aid  in  this  way  in 
connecting  symbol  and  word,  though  at  the 
first  there  was  some  distraction  of  attention, 
due  to  the  newness  of  the  situation."  Obs.  K 
C(33) 

"In  all  cases  of  those  marked  1,  the  'words 
and  symbols  were  recalled  as  belonging  to  the 
corner  in  which  they  were  presented."  Obs.  K 
C(44) 

T’e  find  that,  for  Obs.  G and  Y,  the  A and  D series  have 
changed  places.  Whereas,  in  the  first  group  the  numerical  results 
were  considerably  higher  for  A than  for  D,  in  this  group  we  find  A 
is  slightly  lower  than  D.  This  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  period 
of  introspective  training  at  the  end  of  the  first  group.  Due  to 
this  training  there  seems  to  have  been  less  self-instruction,  the 
observer  taking  a more  uniform  attitude  toward  the  different  series. 

As  before  we  found  wide  variations  in  the  results.  Obs. 
G’s  total  (percent.)  correct  in  A was  51.1  (M.V.  2.9);  in  B,  43.6 
(M.V.  14.1);  in  C,  42.2  (M.V.  10.3);  and  in  D,  53.3  (M.V.  4.4) 

For  Obs.  Y the  average  deviation  runs  as  high  as  20  in  C where  the 
total  correct  is  only  43.3$. 

We  have  not  enough  results  here  to  be  determinative, 
especially  in  view  of  the  wide  variability. 

The  results  obtained  by  the  Trsf fer  method  of  reproduc- 
tion are  few  and  without  significant  differences  in  the  four  series. 

It  was  thought  that  the  small  differences  present  might 
become  more  distinct  if  the  observers  ?/ere  placed  under  heavier 
pressure.  The  number  of  repetitions  was  therefore  reduced  to 


. 


. 


' 


three  and  the  exposure  and  interval  times  were  reduced  to  1.33 
seconds.  The  first  method  of  reproduction  was  again  used  and  the 
observers  were  instructed  to  write  down  the  symbols  as  quickly  as 
possible,  no  time  being  allowed  for  introspection  or  comment. 

Under  these  conditions  six  series  each  with  K and  Y were  given  at 
a sitting.  The  results  obtained  are  tabulated  in  Tables  X and  XI. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  this  case,  Obs.  K's 
total-number  correct  for  A falls,  for  the  first  time,  materially 
below  his  totals  for  B,  C,  and  D.  This  accelerated  method  had 
many  advantages,  and  valuable  results  might  have  been  obtained  with 
fresh  material  and  more  data.  One  bad  factor  was  the  old  material 
in  which  some  combinations  were  mere  familiar  than  others,  having 
been  better  learned  during  previous  presentations. 

From  the  observers*  commentary  we  find  differences  as  to 
the  general  attitude  toward  the  experiment.  Some  cf  the  differ- 
ences may,  to  a certain  extent,  account  for  the  above  mentioned 
differences  in  the  quantitative  results.  Apparently,  Obs.  K and 
Y set  themselves  the-  task  of  "learning"  and  held  themselves  respon- 
sible for  finding  some  means  to  accomplish  the  task.  To  this  end 
they  tended  throughout  to  use  different  devices  for  holding  the 
material  together.  In  place  of  simply  taking  the  word  and  symbol 
as  they  stood,  given  in  juxtaposition,  these  observers  attempted  to 
find  some  means  of  binding  them  together;  they  tried  to  find  some 
meaning  relationship  between  the  two.  This  self-instruction  to 
discover  and  to  dwell  attentively  upon  meanings  is  extremely  common 
in  the  task  of  "learning".  On  the  other  hand,  the  problem  given 


was  simply  to  maintain  uniform  attention  aid  to  let  mind  and  the 


' 


TABLE  X (Accelerated  time) 


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84.6 
62.5 

85.7 
84.0 

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85.3 

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88.1 

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nervous  s\^stem  do  the  rest,  the  observer  simply  recording  faith- 
fully whatever  came.  The  instructions  against  this  sort  of 
thing  made  it  difficult  to  maintain  a uniform  and  constant  atti- 
tude toward  the  problem.  This  was  especially  true  in  the  case  of 
Obs.  Y.  A few  observational  comments  will  illustrate: 

"In  this  case  I was  able  to  organize 
the  words  of  + and  = into  a group.  This 
aided  much  in  recall."  Obs.  K C(3) 

"In  connecting  the  symbols  with  the 
nonsense  'words,  I pronounced  the  words  to 
myself  and  made  movements  with  my  fingers 
to  correspond  with  the  symbol.  This 
seemed  to  help  fix  the  visual  impression." 

Obs.  K E(3) 

"The  learning  is  so  mechanical  that 
it  is  hard  to  maintain  a uniform  atten- 
tion. There  was  a tendency  toward  ex- 
traneous associations  relative  to  matters 
of  the  day.  These  were  somewhat  inhibited." 

Obs.  Y B(3) 

"It  seems  that  there  is  a tendency  to 
busy  myself  .with  something,  if  not  with 
logical  associations  then  with  extra  mater- 
ial . It  is  very  difficult  to  be  very 
passive  and  say  these  syllables  in  a mechani- 
cal way  and  to  think  of  nothing."  Obs.  Y 
C(2) 

"At  the  first  of  the  series  a feeling 
of  discouragement  - I can't  ever  learn  these! 

It  is  hard  to  keep  up  interest  in  so  mechan- 
ical a process,"  Obs.  Y B(s) 

For  G there  was  little  evidence  of  this  intent  to  "learn"  and, 
apparently,  a greater  uniformity  in  general  attitude. 

Another  interesting  group  of  differences  appeared  in 
the  character  of  the  processes  in  the  foreground,  during  both  the 
period  of  impression  and  that  of  recall.  Obs.  G, reported  verbal 
kinaesthetic  processes  in  the  foreground  during  the  period  of  pre- 


38 


sentation,  while  both  Obs,  K and  Y reported  these  processes  in  the 
background  and  visual  processes  in  the  foreground.  For  Obs.  G 
and  Y rec all  was  carried  in  every  case  in  terms  of  auditory-kin- 
aesthetic  (verbal)  and  kinaesthetic  processes,  i_. e. , the  word  was 
chiefly  audit or y-kinae sthetic  and  the  symbol  visual.  Kinaesxkes- 
is  (non-verbal)  occasionally  entered  into  the  reproduction  of  the 
symbol.  Obs.  K had  no  name  for  the  symbol;  both  G and  Y had. 

Another  interesting  difference,  though  it  has  little 
bearing  upon  our  present  problem,  concerned  the  reliability  of 
.judgments  of  certainty.  In  the  cases  of  Obs.  K and  Y,  degree  1 
of  assurance  almost  always  insured  correctness.  This  was  not 
true  in  the  case  of  Obs.  G,  as  only  61$  of  those  marked  1 (Table 
VI)  were  correct.  The  difference  is,  no  doubt,  due  largely  to 
the  fact  that  G did  not  use  logical  meanings.  The  following 
comments  bear  this  out: 

"No  accessory  processes  upon  which  to 
base  certainty.  The  only  cue  I would  have 
is  a little  hesitancy  in  the  appearance  of 
the  kinaesthesis  and  in  a very  general 
affective  and  ideational  judgment  of  the 
•whole  period."  G. 

"1  usually  means  that  there  was  some 
cue.”  Y. 

CONCLUSIONS 

We  set  out  to  determine  whether  or  not  certain  adventi- 
tious factors,  factors  lying  outside  the  central  meaning  of  the 
situation,  were  aids  to  recall.  Furthermore,  we .wished  to  dis- 
cover by  what  processes  these  extraneous  meanings  were  carried 


* 


. 


■ 


39 


and  where  these  processes  stood  in  the  general  organization  of 
mind.  We  introduced  a number  of  extraneous  factors.  Included 
in  the  visual  group  were  colored  papers,  colored  borders,  and 
location  of  words  in  different  sectors.  The  second  group  intro- 
duced organic  and  kinaesthetic  factors  by  the  various  postures  of 
standing,  sitting,  and  kneeling. 

In  general  we  have  obtained  but  little  positive  evidence 
that  our  extraneous  factors  were  actually  integrative  in  associa- 
tion. ' On  the  contrary,  they  have  frequently  appeared  as  distract- 
ing or  disintegrating  moments.  The  result  suggests  that  the 
incidental  meanings  which  supply  the  setting  for  the  main  subject- 
matter  and  which  frequently  reappear  in  reproduction  at  a high 
level  of  clearness  do  not  serve  as  incentives  to  recall  but  are 
sheer  associative  luxuries. 

Incidentally  we  have  come  upon  the  problem  of  segrega- 
tion as  a factor.  While  the  earlier  results  gave  evidence  of 
some  advantage  in  segregation,  the  later  results  g:.ve  very  little. 
In  fact,  a part  of  the  evidence  is  negative.  As  has  been  shown, 
this  negative  evidence  may  be  due  to  bad  self-instruction  on  the 
part  of  the  observer. 

The  problem  is  beginning  to  show  promise  and  invites 
further  investigation.  A number  of  modifications  might  be  made 
both  by  way  of  refining  the  method  and  by  way  of  introducing  new 
’outside'  factors. 

In  the  first  place  we  suggest  a new  kind  of  symbol,  a 
symbol  which  would  be  less  likely  to  be  named.  Japanese  charac- 
ters or  non-sense  geometric-:!  figures  might  be  used.  Secondly, 


. 


. 


* . 


40 


an  accelerated,  time,  each  as  .7 as  used  in  the  last  part  of  the 
experiment,  would  be  an  improvement.  Under  these  conditions 
attention  would  tend  to  greater  uniformity  with  less  temptation 
to  learn  by  logical  means. 

Thirdly,  in  order  to  obtain  accurate  results,  it  would 
seem  necessary  to  give  each  observer  a period  of  thorough  training. 
During  this  period  careful  introspections  and  running  comments  by 
the  observer  should  be  taken  in  order  to  discover  any  devices  for 
'learning'  and  variations  in  self-instruction.  Not  until  all  of 
these  things  have  been  arranged  should  the  regular  experiment  be 
started. 

Fourthly,  a 'recognition'  method  might  be  used  to  supple- 
ment the  procedure  of  'reproduction'.  Thus,  a partial  or  com- 
plete list  of  words,  with  symbols  already  attached  (some  correct 
and  some  incorrect),  would  be  given  the  observer,  who  would  be 
instructed  to  identify  the  correct  combinations.  This  method 
would  have  the  advantage  of  similarity  to  the  mode  of  presentation. 

There  are  several  new  adventitious  factors  which  might 
be  used.  We  have  already  explored  the  visual  and  kinaesthetic 
fields.  We  might  turn  next  to  audition,  using,  in  place  of 
colored  borders,  tones  of  unlike  pitches  or  intensities.  In  the 
E and  C series  we  should  then  employ  high,  medium,  and  low  quali- 
ties or  strong,  medium,  and  weak  tones  of  the  same  pitch.  Again, 
affective  processes  might  be  brought  in  as  an  extraneous  factor, 
in  connection,  say,  with  odors.  The  general  arrangement,  however, 
would  have  to  be  modified  to  si: it  the  material,  the  series  being 


41 

divided  into  two  parts,  for  pleasantness  and  unpleasantness,  in 
place  of  three.  Furthermore,  there  would  he,  in  this  case,  not 
one  factor  hut  two,  affection  and  olfactory  sensation. 

Much  could  he  added  on  the  side  of  qualitative  analysis 
hy  more  careful  and  more  detailed  reports.  Introspections  from 
a long  period  of  training  would  add  materially  to  the  body  of 
information. 


42 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Arnold,  F.,  The  Psychology  of  Association.  ISOo. 

Calkins,  M.  W. , Association  (Psychol.  Rev.  Monog. 
Suppl, , No.  2,  Feb.  1896). 

Ebbinghaus,  H. , Psychology;  an  Elementary  Text-book. 
Xtx.  by  M.  Meyer)  1908. 

Meumann,  E. , The  Psychology  of  Learning.  1913. 

Potter,  M.  L. , The  RSle  of  Adventitious  Associates  in 
Recall.  1921. 

Titchener,  E.  B. , A Beginner’s  Psychology.  1316. 


